Twelve Inquiry Processes

Twelve processes that, taken together, define what an inquirer can do.

A teacher who builds these processes deliberately produces students who can investigate. A teacher who ignores them produces students who pretend to investigate.

Process 1: Observing

The foundational inquiry process. Without observation, no inquiry begins.

What it includes:

1. Identifying systems and details to observe.
2. Making controlled observations (specific, focused).
3. Making free observations (open, exploratory).
4. Ordering series of observations.

Free vs controlled observation.

Free observation. Students observe whatever they notice, without a specific target. The teacher might say “look around and tell me what you see.” Useful for inductive reasoning, where the goal is to build patterns from many observations.

Controlled observation. Students focus on specific things. The teacher might say “look at the leaves of the plant; record their shape and color.” Useful for testing specific hypotheses, where the focus matters.

Both kinds matter. A skilled inquirer uses both. They observe broadly first, then focus on what seems important.

How to teach observation. Begin in early years. Have children observe simple things. Plants growing. Weather changing. People moving. Build the habit of looking carefully.

Over time, introduce more sophisticated observation. Microscopes. Diagrams. Long-term observations across days or weeks.

A student who has practiced observation for years notices things others miss. This is a real life skill.

Process 2: Classifying, comparing, tabulating, coding

Once students have observations, they need to organize them.

Classifying. Sorting things into groups. Round leaves vs pointy leaves. Living things vs non-living. Acids vs bases.

Comparing. Looking for similarities and differences. How does today’s weather compare to yesterday’s?

Tabulating. Putting data into tables. Rows and columns showing what was observed.

Coding. Assigning labels to categories. Using symbols or numbers to represent different observation types.

These four are related. They all impose structure on raw observations. They turn data into patterns.

Practical example. Students collect leaves from different trees. They classify by shape (round, pointy, broad). They compare sizes within each group. They tabulate findings (5 round, 3 pointy, 8 broad). They code the leaves with letters (R for round, P for pointy, B for broad).

This simple activity uses all four processes. Students leave with both leaves and skills.

Process 3: Inferring

Inferring is drawing conclusions based on observations. Going beyond what you directly observe to what is likely true.

What it includes:

1. Making reasonable inferences from data.
2. Constructing situations to test inferences.
3. Refining inferences based on tests.

Example. A student observes that the plants in the school garden are wilting. They infer that the plants need water. They test the inference by watering. The inference holds (or does not).

Inference is the bridge between observation and explanation. A student who can observe but not infer has data but no understanding. A student who can do both can build knowledge.

How to teach inference. Pose questions like “what do you think this means?” or “why might this be happening?” Students propose inferences. Then ask “how would you test that?” Students design tests. The inference becomes inquiry.

Process 4: Using numbers

Quantitative thinking. Counting, labeling, working with numerical values.

What it includes:

1. Counting objects and observations.
2. Labeling and numbering.
3. Working with numerical patterns.

Why it matters. Inquiry often produces quantitative information. Without skill in numbers, students cannot use this information.

Example. Students counting plants in a garden. Numbering observations in a log. Labeling species with codes.

How to teach. Build numerical thinking from early ages. Even preschool children can count and label. Build complexity over time.

Process 5: Measuring

Beyond counting, measuring assigns specific values to qualities.

What it includes:

1. Length, area, volume, mass.
2. Time durations.
3. Temperature, weight, density.
4. More advanced quantities (speed, acceleration, concentration).

Why measuring matters in inquiry. Many inquiries require precise data. “Bigger” and “smaller” are vague. “12 cm vs 8 cm” is precise.

How to teach. Build measurement from concrete examples. Use rulers, measuring cups, thermometers. Practice measuring before using measurements in inquiries.

Process 6: Using space-time relationships

How things relate to each other in space and time.

What it includes:

1. Spatial reasoning (where things are relative to each other).
2. Temporal reasoning (when things happened relative to each other).
3. Combining space and time (motion, change over time).

Why this matters. Many inquiries involve space-time. A historical inquiry asks when events happened. A scientific inquiry asks where reactions occur. A geographic inquiry asks how things are arranged.

How to teach. Use maps, timelines, diagrams. Have students locate things and events. Build the habit of asking “where” and “when” alongside “what.”

Process 7: Communicating

Sharing inquiry findings with others.

What it includes:

1. Constructing graphs and diagrams.
2. Writing reports.
3. Giving oral presentations.
4. Creating pictorial representations.
5. Using abstract forms (paintings, models).

Why this matters. An inquiry that is not communicated is incomplete. Other people cannot benefit from it. The student does not consolidate their own learning fully without articulating it.

How to teach. From early years, have students share what they found. With younger children, simple show-and-tell. With older students, structured presentations and written reports.

Communication can take many forms. Graphs, paintings, models, pictorial representations, oral, written. Different students may communicate best in different forms. Allow variety.

A teacher who insists on only written reports limits students whose strengths lie in other forms of communication.

Process 8: Predicting

Saying what will happen before it happens.

What it includes:

1. Extrapolation (extending patterns beyond observed data).
2. Interpolation (estimating values within observed data).
3. Methods for testing predictions.

Why predicting matters. Prediction is what science does. A theory that does not predict is not scientific. Real understanding allows prediction.

Example. Students study plant growth in different conditions. They predict that a plant in low light will grow slower than one in full sun. They test the prediction.

How to teach. Build prediction practice from simple cases. “What do you think will happen if I do this?” Students predict before observing. After observing, they compare predictions to outcomes. Over time, predictions become more sophisticated.

Process 9: Making operational definitions

Defining terms specifically for the context of an inquiry.

What it includes:

1. Specifying what counts as included.
2. Specifying what counts as excluded.
3. Making the definition usable for the inquiry.

Example. A student doing an inquiry on flowering plants must define what they count as a flowering plant. Roses? Sunflowers? Cacti with flowers? Trees with flowers? The student decides and writes the operational definition.

Without this, the inquiry is fuzzy. Different students might count different things, producing inconsistent results.

Why this matters. Real research requires operational definitions. Scientists publish them in their methods sections. Students learning to operationalize learn to think clearly.

How to teach. When students start an inquiry, ask them to define their key terms. What exactly are they studying? What is included? What is excluded? Their definitions become the foundation of their inquiry.

Process 10: Formulating hypotheses

Proposing tentative answers to investigate.

What it includes:

1. Stating a hypothesis clearly.
2. Specifying what would support or refute the hypothesis.
3. Designing tests of the hypothesis.

Example. A student observes that some students who eat oranges seem to get fewer colds. They formulate a hypothesis: “Eating citrus prevents sore throats.” They test by tracking citrus intake and sore throats over weeks.

Difference from prediction. A prediction says what will happen. A hypothesis says what might be true and explains why. A hypothesis is more general than a prediction.

How to teach. When students notice patterns, ask “why do you think this happens?” Their answers are hypotheses. Help them refine the hypothesis to be testable. Then design the test together.

A student who learns to formulate hypotheses thinks like a scientist.

Process 11: Interpreting data

Making sense of evidence.

What it includes:

1. Reading graphs, charts, tables.
2. Spotting patterns in data.
3. Drawing conclusions supported by evidence.
4. Recognizing what data does not show.

Why this matters. Data does not interpret itself. A student who can collect data but cannot interpret it has half a skill.

Example. Students collect rainfall data for a month. They graph it. They look for patterns. They interpret: “Rainfall was heaviest in week 2; week 3 was driest.” Then deeper interpretation: “The heaviest rains were on weekend days, perhaps coincidence, or perhaps related to atmospheric patterns.”

How to teach. Provide data to students. Have them graph it, look for patterns, write interpretations. Move from simple to complex. From single graphs to multi-variable data.

A student who can interpret data can engage with research, news, and policy claims throughout their life.

Process 12: Experimentation

Designing and conducting experiments.

What it includes:

1. Identifying variables.
2. Controlling variables.
3. Running experiments.
4. Analyzing results.

Why this matters. Experimentation is the most rigorous form of inquiry. It allows causal conclusions rather than merely correlational ones.

Example. Students want to know if more water makes plants grow faster. They design an experiment: same plants, same soil, same light, varying water amounts. They measure growth over weeks. They compare.

How to teach. Build from simple experiments to complex ones. Early years: simple observations. Middle years: controlled experiments with one variable. High school: experiments with multiple variables and statistical analysis.

Experimentation is especially important in science. Students learning science must learn to experiment, not just memorize results.

Flashcard

What are the twelve inquiry processes that students should develop?

Tap to reveal

Answer

Observing, classifying, inferring, numbers, measuring, space-time, communicating, predicting, defining, hypothesizing, interpreting, experimenting

1. Observing (free and controlled).

2. Classifying, comparing, tabulating, coding.

3. Inferring conclusions from observations.

4. Using numbers and counting.

5. Measuring quantities precisely.

6. Using space-time relationships.

7. Communicating findings in many forms.

8. Predicting from data.

9. Making operational definitions.

10. Formulating hypotheses.

11. Interpreting data.

12. Experimentation.

All twelve must be developed. They build on each other and produce real inquirers.

How to build the twelve processes

A teacher does not teach all twelve in one unit. They build them gradually across years.

Early years. Observing, classifying, basic counting, simple communication.

Primary school. Add measuring, more sophisticated classification, basic prediction, drawing inferences.

Middle school. Add operational definitions, formulating hypotheses, designing experiments, more complex data interpretation.

High school. All twelve, with sophistication. Students become capable of substantial independent inquiry.

A school that builds these processes systematically produces students who can investigate by graduation. A school that does not produces students who can only recite.

What teachers should do today

Even within a single class period, a teacher can build inquiry processes.

For each lesson, pick one or two processes to emphasize. Today’s lesson develops observation. Next week’s emphasizes inference.

Connect to the subject content. Use the science topic to build observation. Use the social studies topic to build communication. Use the math topic to build measurement.

Assess the process alongside the content. Did students observe carefully? Did they classify systematically? Did they communicate clearly?

Celebrate process growth. When a student improves at observation, name it. When their inferences get better, point it out. Make the process growth visible.

A teacher who attends to processes builds skills that last. A teacher who only attends to content builds knowledge that fades.