Continuous Improvement and PDSA

Continuous improvement is the heart of TQM. The principle is straightforward: most mistakes come from faulty systems, not faulty people, so improvement work focuses on the system. Three major tools handle mistakes at different stages, and the PDSA cycle gives a structure for managing each improvement effort over time.

The continuous improvement principle

TQM aims for continuous improvement in all work. It leads to ongoing improvement of processes, technology, and people and machine capabilities across the organisation.

Continuous improvement (in Japanese, kaizen) is the practice of always seeking to improve. Not occasional improvement campaigns; ongoing small improvements that compound over time.

The central insight

The key idea is that mistakes can be avoided and defects can be prevented. Mistakes may be made by people, but most are caused, or at least permitted, by faulty systems and processes.

This is uncomfortable but important. When a mistake happens, the instinct is to blame the person who made it. TQM says: look at the system. The system allowed the mistake.

A teacher who marks a paper incorrectly: the system may have given her too many papers and too little time. The receptionist who is rude to a parent: the system may have her dealing with frustrating procedures all day with no support. The fee collector who misses a payment: the system may have a confusing form.

Root causes can be identified and eliminated, and errors prevented by changing the process (Gilbert, 1992).

The improvement work is in the system, not in punishing individuals. A school head who absorbs this thinks differently about quality. When a problem appears, she asks: what in the system produced this? The answer points to the improvement.

This does not mean individual responsibility disappears. It means that systemic causes are usually more important than individual causes.

The major tools of TQM

Three tools handle mistakes at different stages.

1. Mistake-proofing (poka-yoke)

Mistake-proofing prevents defects from occurring in the first place.

Designing the work so that mistakes are hard to make. The Japanese term poka-yoke literally means “mistake-proofing”.

In a school: a paper form designed so that required fields cannot be skipped. A schedule that automatically flags conflicts. An admissions process that catches missing documents before the application is filed.

The principle: do not rely on people to remember; design the process so the right thing happens automatically.

2. Inspection at source

Where defects cannot be absolutely prevented, inspect at source or at the next stage to catch them early and prevent them being passed down the chain.

When mistakes cannot be prevented, catch them where they happen, not later.

In a school: a teacher reviews her own lesson plan before delivering it (rather than discovering the gap mid-lesson). A coordinator reviews each section’s data weekly (rather than at term end). A parent communication is checked before sending (rather than after a complaint).

The principle: short feedback loops. Find the mistake where it happens; fix it before it propagates.

3. Stopping production

Where mistakes recur, halt production until the process can be corrected, preventing the production of more defects.

When mistakes keep happening despite best efforts, stop the process and fix it.

In a school: if a new assessment system keeps producing errors, halt its use until the problem is solved. If a new curriculum keeps failing in delivery, pause and redesign before continuing.

This is hard. Stopping production has costs. But the alternative is continuing to produce defects, which has higher costs over time.

Implementing TQM

Implementation rests on a few practical steps.

The preliminary step is to assess the current reality of the organisation: its history, its current needs, the events that led to TQM, and the existing quality of employees’ working life. Before launching TQM, understand the school’s starting point.

If the organisation’s track record shows active responsiveness to its environment, TQM is easier to implement. A school that has historically adapted to change has the cultural foundation in place.

If the organisation has been historically reactive and has no skill at improving its operating systems, employee scepticism is high and skilled change agents are scarce. A reactive school faces more resistance; staff are sceptical and few people inside the school know how to lead improvement.

A management audit identifies current levels of organisational functioning and areas to change. A formal audit is useful: it tells the school where it stands and what needs work.

When TQM is not appropriate

An organisation should be basically healthy before beginning TQM. If significant problems exist (unstable funding, weak administrative systems, lack of managerial skills, poor employee morale), TQM is not appropriate (Tichey, 1983).

This is a serious caveat. TQM is for healthy organisations seeking improvement. It is not for organisations in crisis.

A school in financial distress, with weak admin, demoralised staff, should fix the foundations first. TQM on top of weak foundations adds load without producing improvement.

A school head considering TQM should be honest about the school’s current state. Premature TQM produces frustration and undermines later attempts.

The PDSA cycle

A key tool for managing improvement is the PDSA cycle, which sets out the steps for managing the transition.

PDSA stands for Plan, Do, Study, Act. It is the basic cycle of continuous improvement.

Plan

Establish objectives, a plan that will facilitate achieving the goal, and a system of measurement.

The planning phase. What are we trying to improve? How? How will we know if we have succeeded?

For a school improving grade-5 mathematics: objective is to improve grade-5 mathematics scores by 15 percent over one year. Plan is a new teaching approach plus weekly assessment. Measurement is the standardised test plus weekly quizzes.

Do

Plan for implementation, then implement the plan on a pilot basis.

The execution phase. Start with a pilot, not a full rollout. The pilot lets the school learn before scaling.

For the grade-5 mathematics improvement: pilot the new approach with one section first, not all sections.

Study

Compare the results with the objectives. Identify gaps. Analyse the causes for both gaps and exceptional results.

The reflection phase. What happened? What worked? What did not? Why?

An important addition here: analyse exceptional results too, not just gaps. A section that exceeded the target may have something to teach the others.

Act

Standardise procedures that met or exceeded the goal. If gaps remain, improve the plan and carry out PDSA again.

The decision phase. For practices that worked: standardise them. Make them the new normal across the school. For practices that did not work: revise and run PDSA again.

The PDSA cycle is not one-time. It runs continuously. Every improvement effort goes through the cycle. Each cycle teaches the school more.

A school running PDSA on multiple improvements simultaneously becomes a learning organisation. A school that never runs PDSA improves only by accident.

A worked example

A school’s continuous improvement effort.

Identified area

Parent communication is producing complaints. Parents say they are not getting clear information about their child’s progress.

Plan

1. Objective. Reduce parent complaints about communication by 50 percent over one term.
2. Plan. Introduce a weekly summary email to each parent, with each child’s mathematics, English, and science progress.
3. Measurement. Track parent complaints (current baseline: 40 per term). Track parent satisfaction survey scores.

Do

Pilot the weekly summary with one grade for one term.

Study

End of term review.

1. Complaints from that grade’s parents dropped from 12 to 3 (a 75 percent reduction).
2. Parent satisfaction in that grade rose from 70 to 85.
3. Teachers found the weekly summary added about 30 minutes per week to their workload.
4. One issue: the format was confusing for parents who do not read well in English.

Act

1. Standardise the weekly summary for that grade and roll out to other grades.
2. Address the workload issue by simplifying the template.
3. Address the language issue by offering versions in other common languages spoken by the parent community.
4. Run another PDSA cycle on the rollout.

This is what continuous improvement looks like in practice. Small, structured, evidence-based, ongoing.

Flashcard

What is the PDSA cycle?

Tap to reveal

Answer

Plan, Do, Study, Act. The basic cycle of continuous improvement.

1. Plan. Establish objectives, plan, and measurement system.
2. Do. Implement on a pilot basis, not a full rollout.
3. Study. Compare results with objectives. Analyse gaps and exceptional results.
4. Act. Standardise what worked. For gaps, improve the plan and run PDSA again.