Theories-in-Use and Espoused Theories
At a glance
The two theories
| Type | What it is |
|---|---|
| Espoused theory | What we say we believe and use to explain our actions to others |
| Theory-in-use | The theory actually embedded in our actions, often tacit |
Key claim
Action is not always consistent with formal beliefs. The two theories often differ.
What reflective practice is about
- Ownership of knowledge
- Awareness of what we use, how we use it, and how to improve in real time
- How the mind works in practical situations
- The invisible and the visible, the tacit and the explicit
- Flexibility, adaptation, effectiveness
A teacher gives a workshop on student-centred learning. They speak about active participation, voice, and learner agency. The next morning, the same teacher runs a 50-minute lesson with no student question, no group work, and a single closed quiz at the end. They are not lying. They believe what they said in the workshop. The gap is between what they say and what they do.
This gap has a name. It is the difference between espoused theories and theories-in-use.
What the two theories are
The distinction comes from Chris Argyris and Donald Schon, working in organisational learning in the 1970s. The same idea applies straight to teaching.
Espoused theory
The espoused theory is what we say we believe. It is the theory we use to argue about our actions. We use it to explain ourselves to others, to justify our choices in writing, and to describe what we would do in an ideal case.
Espoused theories are explicit. We can write them down. We can teach them. We can put them in a teaching philosophy statement.
Theory-in-use
The theory-in-use is the one embedded in the logic of the action. It is the theory that actually commands what happens in real time, in the room.
Theories-in-use are mostly tacit. The person using them often cannot describe them. The first sign of a theory-in-use is the action itself. To see it, you have to watch what someone does, not what they say they do.
A teacher’s espoused theory might be “students learn best when they construct meaning through dialogue.” The same teacher’s theory-in-use, visible in their lessons, might be “the safest way to cover the syllabus is to talk for forty minutes and write key points on the board.”
Why the two theories often diverge
There are several reasons the two pull apart.
Time pressure
In a busy classroom there is no time to apply a complex espoused theory. The body falls back on whatever pattern is most automatic. That automatic pattern is the theory-in-use.
Anxiety and risk
A teacher who sincerely believes in student voice may panic when a discussion goes off-track and switch to direct instruction to regain control. The espoused theory survives. The theory-in-use, the one that actually decided the lesson, is “control beats chaos.”
Inherited habits
We teach the way we were taught. Theories-in-use are absorbed early, often before we have explicit theories at all. They sit underneath later beliefs and continue to drive action.
Lack of practice
An espoused theory has to be practised before it can become a theory-in-use. A teacher who has read about scaffolding but never built a scaffolded lesson cannot use the theory in real time. The reading stays espoused; the action stays old.
Why this matters for reflective practice
The split between espoused theory and theory-in-use is one of the central problems reflective practice tries to address. Without reflection, the gap stays invisible to the teacher. The teacher continues to believe their espoused theory is the one in charge.
Reflection brings the theory-in-use into view. It does this in several ways.
- Watching the action. A video of a lesson, observed by the teacher afterwards, shows the theory-in-use. The teacher sees what they did, not what they thought they were doing.
- Observation by a critical friend. A colleague describes what they saw, not what the teacher claimed. The description often surprises.
- Questioning student responses. Asking students how they experienced the lesson reveals which theory was actually operating.
- Tracing patterns over many lessons. A pattern that appears across many lessons is rarely an accident. It is the fingerprint of a theory-in-use.
What reflective practice is, in light of this distinction
Once we see the gap clearly, several lines about reflective practice come into focus.
Reflective practice is about ownership of knowledge
It is about taking responsibility for the theories that actually drive our actions, not only the ones we are willing to say in public. Knowledge owned only at the espoused level is borrowed. Knowledge owned at the theory-in-use level is real.
Awareness of how we use what we know
The reflective practitioner becomes aware of which theory is operating, how it is being used, and how to improve action in real time. This awareness is the point at which the espoused theory begins to influence the action.
How our minds work in practical situations
Reflective practice is about the mind in practice, not the mind on paper. The interest is in what is invisible and visible, what is tacit and explicit, and where blindness gives way to sight.
Flexibility, adaptation, effectiveness
When the gap closes, the practitioner becomes more flexible. They can adapt because they see what their actions are actually doing. They become more effective because their theories and their actions are aligned.
Espoused theory is what we say we believe. Theory-in-use is what is actually embedded in our actions.
Espoused theories are explicit and used to explain actions to others. Theories-in-use are mostly tacit and command the thinking that drives the action. The two often differ. Reflective practice is the work of bringing the theory-in-use into view and reducing the gap.
How to combine the two
The aim is not to throw away espoused theory. Espoused theory is where new ideas first enter. The aim is to combine espoused theory with experience so that better solutions can be created in real time.
This combination happens through deliberate practice, observation, and reflection on the gap between what was said and what was done. Without that loop, espoused theory stays decorative and theory-in-use stays inherited.
A reflective practitioner who works on the gap for a few years tends to find their actions slowly catching up to their stated beliefs. The espoused theory ceases to be a slogan. It starts to be visible in the lesson.